论中国古代“情判”司法传统

张福坤


摘要：“情判”是中国传统诉讼中极具特色而又颇为重要的一种特殊现象。由于“情判”的灵活与变通，从而能在某种程度上实现公平正义，由此达到儒家倡导的和谐与无诉的理想目标。因此，“情判”在中国古代适用极为广泛，得到了无论官方还是民间的广泛认可，其实效也得到了充分发挥，并在很大程度上影响着中国传统诉讼实践。文章试从“情判”发展的历史脉络、“情判”心态模式、审判依据与判决内容、“情判”司法案例与实践、现代意义五部分对这一传统加以论述，以阐述在中国传统文化背景下所产生的这种审判制度的大致轮廓及其现实意义。

关键词：古代；情判；司法传统；现代意义


　　“情判”是中国传统诉讼中极具特色而又颇为重要的一种特殊现象。是在中国传统文化背景下所产生的一种具有中国特色的审判制度。笔者认为在既有的关于中国传统诉讼审判中国家的诉讼制度的同时，应该对于制度背后的观念性的文化的东西加以关注。无疑，中国传统诉讼审判中，“情”的作用是不容忽视的，因为它与中国传统的情理社会相契合。因此，对“情判”的研究具有重要的意义。

一、“情判”发展的历史脉络

　　“情”对于立法的影响可以追溯到夏商周三代。先秦时期，社会的形态均是家国一体或者可以说家国同构，家就是国的缩影。血缘关系在这个时期的整个社会关系中处于至关重要的地位，这一时期是典型的宗法社会，其法律制度中亲情伦理色彩极为浓重。到了秦朝，秦始皇采用法家思想建立了高度中央集权王朝，实行“任法而治”，但是秦朝的法律制度中仍能够看见血缘亲情的因子。汉代秦后，尤其汉武帝“罢黜百家，独尊儒术”以来，儒家思想和学说被确立为正统思想，从而拉开了中国古代法律儒家化的序幕。汉代法律儒家化的表现主要是在立法上的“引礼入律”，和司法上的“春秋决狱”。也就是在西汉的中叶，以董仲舒“春秋决狱”为标志，“情判”在古代司法实践中亦悄然兴起，并逐渐成为一股潮流。值得提一下的是“春秋决狱”，所谓“春秋决狱”即在依律断案之外，还根据儒家经典，尤其是《春秋》的“微言大义”来决断案件。董仲舒曾依据春秋经义作《春秋决狱》232事。“春秋决狱”的依据来自儒家经义，如《易》、《诗》、《书》、《礼》、《乐》、《春秋》。儒家经义可以追溯到西周时的礼治，礼治发展到汉朝，董仲舒据此提出了“三纲”思想，这“三纲”中由“父为子纲”引申出来的“孝”成为实质上的核心，而“孝”讲究的则是人伦情感，据“孝”断案实际上就是据“情”断案。历史的车轮滑到唐朝，“一准乎礼”的唐律的制定和实施标志着中国法律儒家化的完成，同时也标志着“情”对法律的作用得到最终承认。宋朝是中国传统“情判”发展的一个重要时期，此时情理已经深入人心，并在司法实践中被广泛运用。除《宋史》外，尤其突出的是《明公书判清明集》中记载了大量案例，均体现了法判向情判的偏转。此后，元明清各朝法律基本沿袭唐律精神。

二、“情判”司法传统之心态模式

（一）“情判”的思想基础

　　“情判”的思想基础主要来源于儒家学说。“情判”的核心在于一个“情”字，即审判的判决依据来自情或情理。中国传统诉讼指导思想总体上说是以儒家思想为主体的，儒家思想的起点和出发点在于情，而其最终的落脚点也在于情。儒家思想与情的内在联系可以通过几个方面来体现。首先是“礼”，礼在中国古代无所不包，有人说“礼源于情感又出自理性。”《礼记•礼运》称：“故圣人之所以治人七情，修十义，讲信修睦，尚辞让，去争夺，舍礼何以治之？”这说明了礼自情出。其次是“仁”，儒家思想的根本内容在于关于“任”的学说，在孔子的“仁学”中，以仁释礼，礼以仁为指导思想，仁是礼的内在精神。“仁”是一个兼涵恭、宽、信、敏、惠、勇、敬、忠、智诸德的总的道德规范，不是仅指一种特定的品德，而是泛指人的所有德性。（P40）孔子的“仁学”思想中蕴含着浓厚的情感因素，对此“《论语》中虽然没有明确提出‘情’观念，但‘仁’字却出现了一百零五次之多。孟子曰：‘仁，人心也。’其实是一种合乎礼仪，而发于中节的情感。这种情感与生俱来……“孝”是子女对父母应有之情，“悌”是对兄弟同辈应有之情，“忠”是对长上君国应有之情，“礼”则是表达情感的方式，……”(P42)这一评述恰如其分的说明了孔子以人伦情感为核心的仁学思想对儒家思想及中国传统文化的广泛影响。
（二）“情判”的民众心态
　　人情是人们社会生活中普遍存在的一种心理，对于人情之重要意义，那是每一个中国人所心领神会的。在古代的中国，人情在社会生活中占据重要位置，以至成为建构和维系社会关系的基础。尤其是在中国乡土社会，由于人们生于斯，长于斯，老于斯和终于斯，不但己生，而且子孙后代都会与左邻右舍建立各种各样的人情关系乃至拟制的血缘关系。彼此称呼爷奶、叔伯、兄弟姐妹……都是中国人试图用人情来维系社会关系的表征。(P23)人情交往的基本准则便是“一礼还一礼”，就是一个“报”字。杨联?先生在《报——中国社会关系的基础》一文指出：“报”是中国社会关系的基础。就人情与王法的关系而言，在中国传统法律观念中“人情大于王法”，法律来自人情，以人情为源泉；就法律与人情的效力而言，也是突出人情的支配地位。在民众的眼里，人情就是最高的法律。程汉大教授也指出“在乡民的心目中，人情比圣旨和法律都大，这里的人情可以理解为‘伦理’、‘习惯’或‘风俗’。可见，中国乡民也有朦胧的‘自然法’意识。”具体到案件的诉讼中，民众打官司只有通过带着情感诉说冤情，伸冤话语用情感来修辞，才能迎合儒吏之同情，才能胜诉。
（三）“情判”的儒吏心态
　　孔子认为对法律的制定和运用必须以礼为指导，要求司法官在审理案件的过程中，用儒家经义作为分析案情，认定犯罪的理论依据，并按经义的精神解释和适用法律。汉代董仲舒也认为断狱应“原心定罪”，“必本其事而原其志”。明代丘浚也指出：“吏胥不通经，不可以掌律令。”当礼义与法律发生矛盾时，要据礼义原则处理，即情理原则。可见，情理原则之所以进入司法实践，成为裁判必须考量的重要因素，与儒家思想和传统是分不开的。
　　司法官员对于自己审案的要求就是，须用“哀矜之心折狱”，要用同情之心来审案，了解案情事实，这种同情心是与儒家“恻隐之心”相吻合的。司法官所作判决不仅要做到案情事实合法，而且要合乎人们的常情和常理。同时，司法官往往以“青天父母”自居，他们为民众的“父母官”，要“为民父母行政”，他们在执法的过程中绝对不会排斥情理，因为他们的最终目的就是试图折中天理、国法、人情三者之统一，追求具体正义，即具体案件处理的合情合理性。

三、“情判”依据与内容

（一）“情判”的依据
　　天理，即天下公认的大道理，天经地义。在古人的世界观中，天占据及其重要的位置，是万物的主宰。人们认为天的运行是有规律的，此规律即为“天道”，人们的世俗生活应当顺乎“天道”。春秋之际就有“法天而行”，“道法自然”的思想，“先王以承天之道，以治人之情。” 董仲舒也说“法天而立道”。宋明之后，天的运行规律被称作“天理”，世俗生活中的道德、法律也被称作“天理”。天理作为一种审判原则存在于传统法制之中。
　　人情，是人们在社会生活中普遍存在的一种心理，它泛指诸如情面、面子、处事习惯、情感认同等等内容。中国传统语境中“情”的基本含义就是指人与人的感情联结。因为中国古代社会的情感结构是一种亲情、熟人结构。“我们的格局不是一捆一捆扎清楚地柴，而是好像把一块石头丢在水面上所发生的一圈圈推出去的波纹。每个人都是他社会影响所推出去的圈子的中心。”(P23)儒家以“父慈子孝”为出发点，并提出相应的行为要求，即“父子有亲，君臣有义，夫妇有别，长幼有序，朋友有信。”  “父慈、子孝、兄良、弟悌、夫义、妇听、长惠、幼顺、君仁、臣忠。” 由此，“五伦十义”成为中国古代社会最重要的“人情”。之后到汉代演变为“三纲五常”成为最高的道德准则。
　　国法，即王者的法，国家的法，官府的法。国家是什么？国家为什么？国家干什么？国家当如何？对这一系列问题的思考和回答，就构成了中国古代的国家观念或国家理念。一个国家要有效运行，实现统治就必须有国法。所谓“家有家规，国有国法”，这是经常听到的一句俗语。这句话里正蕴藏着一个十分有古代中国特色的观念：国法有如家规、家法，是“家长” (皇帝)用来管教“不肖子孙” (不轨臣民)的。很明显，家法不是家长与子弟妇安奴仆协商制订的，而是家长一人的杰作。故家法即“家长之法”；同样，国法不是国君与臣民协商的产物，而是“圣心”、 “圣制”、 “圣裁”的产物，故国法就是“王法”。国法正是国家得以运行的保障。
　　中国古代社会司法审判力求法与情之间的兼顾和平衡。管子主张“令顺民心”，就是指立法要合乎人之常情。“人主之所以令行禁止者，必令于民所好而禁于民之所恶。”《名公书判清明集》也说“法意、人情实通一体。循人情而违法意，不可也；守法意而拂人情，亦不可也。权衡二者之间，使上不违于法意，下不拂于人情，则通行而无弊矣。”(P311)但是，当法律与人情发生冲突或者法无明文规定时，司法官往往弃法顺情。《慎子•因循》中也说：“天道”就存于“人情”之中，此外，再无什么“天理”、“天道”独存；立法应该顺应自私自利这种人之常情，利用人们的“自为心”为统治者服务。这样就实现了天理、国法、人情三位一体的统一。这也强调立法要注重人情，但更重要的“法不外乎人情”这个命题的用意不仅在于对立法或对法的内容本身的要求，而且在于干预司法。就司法活动而言，这个命题的含义是在司法中要求做到法律与人情两相兼顾或两全，而当法与情有矛盾不能两全时，则应舍法取情，此即所谓“人情大于王法”。也就是说，“人情”在判断是非上比国法更具权威性。(P17-25)总之，天理、国法、人情综合为用便构成了古代司法审判的基本依据。
（二）“情判”的内容
1、拷讯方式
　　拷讯是古代审判中一种最基本的审讯方式，也是古代审判的一大特点。拷讯最早可以追溯到西周时期，“仲春之月……母肆掠，止狱公”肆掠即为刑讯。明人海瑞的主张，在审判中对原告被告都要“监之枷之，百端苦之”，以息刁讼。理由是：“夫人有痛之而不知畏者乎？”这种拷讯制度让民众对法律尤其是司法认识普遍与严刑峻法、刑讯逼供等“酷”的印象连在一起，这种“酷”换种说法就是“威”。（P118）通过威刑的方式让其放弃诉讼，维护社会的稳定。
对于兄弟之间的诉讼，明司法官曾有过精辟的见解：
兄弟之间，本无不和也。以和而致争，以争而致讼，以讼而致息，以息而思和。不告不知情费，无由思息也。不打不知畏楚，无由永和也。聊以十三之竹皮，用代六条之木舌。埙篪之爱，其未艾乎？
对于兄弟对簿公堂，司法官的作用就在于利用诉讼揭示、挖掘潜藏的人情，并以情断案，进行教化，实现无讼。当然，有时单靠说教不能达到效果时，便辅之以刑罚手段，使之警醒。
2、淡化是非，力求两和
　　在判决中法官一般不让诉讼的任何一方获得全胜，必须让双方均有损失感，但理足的一方损失小些，理亏的一方损失大些。即“与原告以六分理，亦必与被告以四分理；与原告以六分罪，并必与被告以四分罪，二人曲直不甚相远，可免忿激再讼。”这种“和事佬”式的判决当然是为维护“亲亲之爱”的和谐秩序，以折中、调和、妥协的方式平息纠纷，以中庸之道来处理人际关系、是非纷争，是儒家伦理文化在司法诉讼中的具体体现。
　　清朝于成龙曾审理过一则兄弟二人争死去的母亲安葬在何处的问题：
　　本案前由江夏令审断一过，判将夏氏之柩，葬后夫华姓坟上。其所根据，第一按照律文，……第二根据古礼，……本府于提审此案时，即已审度再三，原判一据律，再据礼，实无可指驳。但范念岵一片孝心，冀干母之蛊，成母之志，其心亦可嘉尚。……故有司断案，亦不可纯略迹原情。今本府为慰安孝子之心计，特取其无碍于律文者，而为而等判。夏氏尸体棺柩，依律应仍遵照原县判案，归入华姓坟墓，范姓不得争夺。但念范念岵以三十年抚养之恩，并不忍其母之失志，并不忍有父而无母，亦准予得变通办法，与华氏子康年一体斩衰三年，并仿古人魂葬之礼，另行招魂致奠，将夏氏生前衣服，附葬于范文六之墓，并许得称范夏氏。如是则律与情各不相仿，在华氏子亦可释争矣。且查律改醮之妇，虽有归后夫之家语，然使前夫家自愿收回者，在律亦并无禁止之明文。是范念岵招魂安葬之举，华氏子亦可无所用其争，且亦不必争矣。此判。(P45-47)
案件中机敏的司法官想出一个妙招，判夏氏尸棺与衣物分葬于两姓，这样就使得情法两平，纷争消除。
3、判决往往超出诉讼请求
　　官吏们的判决也经常超出法律的规定及当事人的诉讼请求范围，取重社会人情伦理风尚。如著名的“乔太守乱点鸳鸯谱”一案中，乔太守的法定职责是确定骗婚者、犯奸者的刑事、民事责任，但他却不关心这一职责，反而充当家长，在公堂上为三对青年再定婚配。所作判词：
　　“弟代姊嫁，姑伴嫂眠。爱子爱女，情在其中。一雌一雄，变出意外。移干柴近烈火，无怪其燃；以美玉配明珠，适获其偶。孙氏子因姊而得妇，搂处子不用逾墙；刘氏女因嫂得夫，怀吉士初非?玉。相悦为婚，礼以义起。所厚者薄，事可权宜。使徐雅别婿裴九之儿，许裴政改娶孙郎之配。夺人妇人也夺其妇，两家恩怨，总息风波。独乐乐不若与人乐，三对夫妻，各谐鱼水。人虽兑换，十六两原只一斤；亲是交门，五百年决非错配。以爱及爱，伊父母自作冰人；非亲是亲，我官府权作月老。已经明断，各赴良期。”
　　通篇充溢人情味而无引据律法条文之迹象，被认为是成人之美、体贴人情的典范之作。
4、判决书之风格。
The Similar And Different Regulations
On Industrial Designs
Between China And Canada
He Zijing

Abstract:
With China entering WTO, more and more Chinese industrial designers want to apply internationally to register their designs outside China. This paper shows you the detailed comparison about regulations concerning industrial designs between China and Canada, gives some suggestions about the process to register internationally to protect Chinese applier. Some hints imposed on the difference between the two countries will help to improve our patent law.
KEYWORDS:
Industrial design, China, Canada
1. General introduction on industrial designs
1.1 What is an industrial design?
1.1.1 Of WIPO
An industrial design is the ornamental of aesthetic aspect of an article. The design may consist of three-dimensional features, such as the shape or surface of an article, or of two-dimensional features, such as patterns, lines or color. Industrial designs are applied to a wide variety of products of industry and handicraft. To be protected under most national laws, an industrial design must appeal to the eye. This means that an industrial design is primarily of an aesthetic nature, and does not protect any technical features of the article to which it is applied.
1.1.2 Of CHINA
Design in the Patent Law means any new design of the shape, the pattern or their combination, or the combination of the color with shape or pattern, of a product with creates an aesthetic feeling and it fits for industrial application.
1.1.3 Of CANADA
Design of industrial design means features of shape, configuration, pattern or ornament and any combination of those features that, in a finished article, appeal to and are judged solely by the eye.
1.2 Other forms of Intellectual Property
In China, Intellectual property can be generally classified as patent, copyright, trademark. Patents, or in other words, inventions-creations, mean inventions, utility models and designs. So that the designs are one of the subdivisions of patents.
Whereas, in Canada, in addition to industrial designs, there other forms of intellectual property, as patents, copyrights, and integrated circuit topographies. Hereby, patents cover new inventions (process, machine, manufacture, composition of matter), or any new and useful improvement of an existing invention. So that industrial designs have the equal statues to patents, as one of the subdivisions of intellectual property.
1.3 Why protect industrial designs?
Industrial designs are what make an article attractive and appealing; hence, they add to the commercial value of a product and increase its marketability.
When an industrial design is protected, the owner-the person or entity that has registered the design-is assured an exclusive right against unauthorized copying or imitation of the design by third parties. This helps to ensure a fair return on investment. An effective system of protection also benefits consumers and the public at large, by promoting fair competition and honest trade practices, encouraging creativity, and promoting more aesthetically attractive product.
Protecting industrial designs helps economic development, by encouraging creativity in the industrial and manufacturing sectors, as well as in the traditional arts and crafts. They contribute to the expansion of commercial activities and the export of national products.
Industrial designs can be relatively simple and inexpensive to develop and protect. They are reasonably accessible to small and medium-sized enterprises as well as to individual artists and craftsmen, in both industrialized and developing countries.
1.4 How can industrial designs be protected?
In most countries, an industrial design must be registered in order to be protected under Industrial Design Law. As for China, the regulations on design are under the Patent Law of People’s Republic of China (PRC) and its implementing regulations; As for Canada, The Industrial Design Act and Industrial Design Regulations details the regulations that govern design rights. As a general rule, to be registerable, the design must be “new” or “original”. Different countries have varying definitions of such terms, as well as variations in the registration process itself. Generally, “new” means that no identical or very similar design is known to have existed before.
Depending on the particular national law and the kind of design, an industrial design may also be protected as a work of art under copyright.
2.The main difference concerning registration
2.1 When to file an application
There is no time limit for filing an application as long as the design had never been published. The term “published” means that the design has been made public (even to your neighbors) or offered for commercial sale or use anywhere in the world. It is best to file an quickly as possible if publication has occurred.
In china, an design application does not lose its novelty where, within six months before the date of filing, one of the following events occurred: [1] where it was first exhibited at an international exhibition sponsored of recognized by the Chinese Government;[2]where it was first made public at a prescribed academic or technological meeting;[3]when it was disclosed by any person without the consent of the applicant.
In Canada, the design shall be refused to be registered if the application is filed more than one year after the publication of the design in Canada of somewhere.
2.2 who can apply?
Only the proprietor of a design may apply for and obtain registration for an industrial design both in China and Canada, while there exists little difference between the two countries on the question that who can be defined as proprietor.[1] usually you are considered the proprietor if you have created the design;[2] if you work together with other person to creat a design, you should file for registration as joint proprietors ( unless you are all working under contract or commission );[3] if you have acquired ownership of a design, then you may apply;[4] if you are employee of a company and develop design as part of your employment, then the employer may be the proprietor. In that case, only the employer may apply in Canada; while in china, the entity and the inventor or creator may enter into a contract in which the right to apply for and own the exclusive right is provided for;[5] if you have been hired under contract to develop design for someone else, then that person is the proprietor and is the only one entitled to apply for registration in Canada; whereas in that case in China, the right to apply for registration belongs, unless otherwise agreed upon, to the entity or individual that made the design.
2.3 What requirements to make designs registerable?
In Canada, the minister shall register the design if the minister finds that it is not identical with or dose not so closely resemble any other design already registered as to be confounded therewith, and shall return to the proprietor thereof the drawing or photograph and description with the certificate required.
In China, any design for which patent fight may be granted must not be identical with and similar to any design which, before the date of falling has been publicly disclosed in publications in the country or abroad or has been publicly used in the country, and must not be in conflict with any prior right of any other person.
2.4 What you cannot register?
In Canada, you cannot register the following under the Industrial Design Act: [1] Designs that are utilitarian only and which are not intended to provide visual appeal; [2] Designs that have no fixed appearance; [3] Designs for components that are not clearly visible; [4] a method of construction; [5] an idea; [6] materials used in the construction of an article; [7] the useful function of the article; or [8] color.
In China, for any of the following, no patent right shall be granted: [1] scientific discoveries;[2] rules and methods for mental activities;[3] methods for diagnoses or for the treatment for the diseases;[4] animal and plant varieties;[5] substances obtained by means of nuclear transformation.
From the above regulations, we can see that the Chinese regulations is more generic for all of the three types of creation-inventions; and the Canadian’s is more special in detail on designs. So we should absorb some of them in our implementing regulations of patent law.
2.5 searching of office record prior to filing an application
Prior to filing an application, you may wish to conduct a search of office records in order to better determine whether your design is truly new and original. This will give you the opportunity to see other registered designs. You should also keep your design confidential.
2.6 How long the process takes?
In Canada, the Office dose not register any design until six months after the date of filing. Normally it takes between eight and twelve months to have your application examined. While in china, there is no such kind of provisions concerning the term of process of designs.
2.7 Duration of protection
Both in the two countries, duration of protection of industrial designs is for ten-year term, while the beginning date is quite different. In Canada, it is the date of registration-usually six months after the date of filing; in china, it is the date of filing. Once the ten-year term has expired, anyone is free to make, import, rent or sell etc., the designs.
2.8 Extension of protection
In Canada, your application must include a description which identifies the features that constitute the design since the court may use your description to help determine the limits of protection for your design, you should word your description with care and precision. If your description is too broad, you may over-extend the scope of the design, and it may be impossible to enforce. If it is too narrow, you may limit the scope of the design or leave out features that you intended to protect.